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The ability to locally tune solute–water interactions and thus control the hydrophilic/hydrophobic character of a solute is key to control molecular self-assembly and to develop new drugs and biocatalysts; it has been a holy grail in synthetic chemistry and biology. To date, the connection between (i) the hydrophobicity of a functional group; (ii) the local structure and thermodynamics of its hydration shell; and (iii) the relative influence of van der Waals (dispersion) and electrostatic interactions on hydration remains unclear. We investigate this connection using spectroscopic, classical simulation and ab initio methods by following the transition from hydrophile to hydrophobe induced by the step-wise fluorination of methyl groups. Along the transition, we find that water–solute hydrogen bonds are progressively transformed into dangling hydroxy groups. Each structure has a distinct thermodynamic, spectroscopic and quantum-mechanical signature connected to the associated local solute hydrophobicity and correlating with the relative contribution of electrostatics and dispersion to the solute–water interactions. 

In spite of the biological importance of the binding of Zn 2+ , Ca 2+ , and Mg 2+ to the carboxylate group, cation–acetate binding affinities and binding modes remain actively debated. Here, we report the first use of Raman multivariate curve resolution (Raman-MCR) vibrational spectroscopy to obtain self-consistent free and bound metal acetate spectra and one-to-one binding constants, without the need to invoke any a priori assumptions regarding the shapes of the corresponding vibrational bands. The experimental results, combined with classical molecular dynamics simulations with a force field effectively accounting for electronic polarization via charge scaling and ab initio simulations, indicate that the measured binding constants pertain to direct (as opposed to water separated) ion pairing. The resulting binding constants do not scale with cation size, as the binding constant to Zn 2+ is significantly larger than that to either Mg 2+ or Ca 2+ , although Zn 2+ and Mg 2+ have similar radii that are about 25% smaller than Ca 2+ . Remaining uncertainties in the metal acetate binding free energies are linked to fundamental ambiguities associated with identifying the range of structures pertaining to non-covalently bound species.